基础要点：如何控制饥饿感、饮食与饱腹感

欢迎来到《Huberman Lab Essentials》，在这里我们重温往期节目，提供最有效、最实用的基于科学的心理健康、身体健康和表现提升工具。我是Andrew Huberman，斯坦福医学院的神经生物学和眼科学教授。本播客与我在斯坦福的教学和研究职责无关，但它是我希望并努力向公众免费提供科学及科学相关工具信息的一部分。今天，我们将讨论激素如何影响进食和饥饿感，以及饱腹感——那种你不想吃东西或觉得已经吃饱了的感觉。

Welcome to Huberman Lab Essentials, where we revisit past episodes for the most potent and actionable science based tools for mental health, physical health, and performance. I'm Andrew Huberman, and I'm a professor of neurobiology and ophthalmology at Stanford School of Medicine. This podcast is separate from my teaching and research roles at Stanford. It is however, part of my desire and effort to bring zero cost to consumer information about science and science related tools to the general public. Today, we're going to talk about how hormones impact feeding and hunger, as well as satiety, the feeling that you don't want to eat or that you've eaten enough.

需要理解的是，激素在此背景下并非单独作用。今天，我将描述一些激素，它们对你是想多吃、少吃还是完全停止进食有强大影响。但它们并非独立作用，而是与神经系统协同工作。关于神经系统方面，你需要知道的第一点是，神经对进食和饥饿的控制涉及大脑中的一个区域——下丘脑。下丘脑包含多种不同类型的神经元，执行多种不同的功能。

Now it's important to understand that hormones don't work alone in this context. Today, I'm going to describe some hormones that have powerful effects on whether or not you want to eat more or less or stop eating altogether. But they don't do that on their own, they do that in cooperation with the nervous system. The first thing that you need to know about the nervous system side, the neural control overfeeding and hunger is that there's an area of your brain called the hypothalamus. Now the hypothalamus contains lots of different kinds of neurons doing lots of different kinds of things.

下丘脑中有一个特定区域称为腹内侧下丘脑。研究人员长期以来一直对其与饥饿和进食的关系感兴趣。原因是它会产生这些矛盾的效果。这是什么意思呢？他们发现，有时损伤或破坏腹内侧下丘脑的神经元会使动物或人变得食欲亢进。

There's a particular area of the hypothalamus called the ventromedial hypothalamus. And it's one that researchers have been interested for a long time now in terms of its relationship to hunger and feeding. And the reason is it creates these paradoxical effects. What do I mean by that? What they found was that sometimes lesioning or disrupting the neurons in the ventromedial hypothalamus would make animals or people hyperphagic.

他们会疯狂地想吃东西。而在其他个体或动物中的其他损伤则会使其变得厌食。他们会完全不想吃东西，对食物产生厌恶。这意味着腹内侧下丘脑确实是饥饿、进食和饱腹感的一个有趣控制站，但它并没有真正揭示更深层次的情况。

They would want to eat like crazy. And other lesions in other individuals or animals would make them anorexic. It would make them not want to eat at all. It would make food aversive. So that means that the ventromedial hypothalamus is definitely an interesting control station for hunger and feeding and satiety, but it doesn't really tell you what's going on at a deeper level.

事实上，这有点令人困惑或自相矛盾。事实证明，那里有多个神经元群体。一些促进进食，一些则促进不进食或停止进食。现在，你需要了解的另一个神经组成部分实际上与你的嘴巴有关。所以，在你的大脑皮层有一个区域。

In fact, it's a little bit confusing or paradoxical. It turns out that there are multiple populations of neurons in there. Some are promoting feeding and some are promoting not feeding or not eating. Now, the other neural component of all this that you need to know about actually has to do with your mouth. So, there's an area of your cortex.

这个区域在大脑中稍高一些，称为岛叶皮层。它处理许多不同类型的信息，主要是关于你内部发生的信息，即所谓的内感受。岛叶皮层有神经元接收来自你嘴巴的输入，来自口腔中的触觉感受器。岛叶皮层对你是否享受所吃的食物、是否想避免所吃的食物、是否已经吃饱了或者是否想继续吃更多有强大的控制力。信不信由你，这与进食的触觉或感觉有关。

So, that's a little bit further up in your brain called the insular cortex. And it processes a lot of different kinds of information, mostly information about what's going on inside you, so called interoception. The insular cortex has neurons that get input from your mouth, from the touch receptors in your mouth. An insular cortex has powerful control over whether or not you're enjoying what you're eating, whether or not you want to avoid what you're eating, whether or not you've had enough or whether or not you want to continue eating more. And that has to do, believe it or not with the touch or sensation of eating.

但现在的关键点是，要知道你有这两个大脑区域：参与饥饿和缺乏饥饿感的腹内侧下丘脑，以及接收口腔输入并关注咀嚼、食物稠度等各种非常触觉的有趣事物的岛叶皮层。我想大多数人会想到舌头上的味觉感受器，但我们常常忽略食物的触觉或质感本质。现在让我们回到腹内侧下丘脑。有时它让动物或人想吃更多，有时则更少。

But the key point right now is to know that you've got these two brain areas, the ventromedial hypothalamus that's involved in hunger and lack of hunger. And you have this insular cortex that gets input from your mouth and cares about chewing and the consistency of foods and all sorts of interesting things that are just very tactile. And I think most people think about the touch receptors on, excuse me, the taste receptors on the tongue, but we often don't think about the touch or tactile essence of food. Now let's get back to the ventromedial hypothalamus. Sometimes it makes animals or people want to eat more, sometimes less.

那么那里发生了什么？有一个经典的实验，研究人员取两只大鼠，将它们进行所谓的联体共生。这意味着他们做了一点手术，将它们的血液供应连接起来，使它们永远物理相连，可以交换血液中的因子，但它们的大脑是分开的，嘴巴是分开的，它们基本上各自独立行事，只是彼此相连。所以它们必须一起走动，去相同的地方才能做到。这个联体共生实验揭示了一些非常重要的事情。

So what's going on there? There's a classic experiment that was done in which researchers took two rats and so called para biose to them to each other. What that meant is that they did a little surgery and they linked their blood supply so that they were forever physically linked to one another and could exchange factors in the blood, but their brains were separate, their mouths were separate and they essentially did everything separately except that they were linked to one another. So they had to walk together and go to the same places in order to do it. This parabiosis experiment revealed something really important.

当他们损伤其中一只与另一只相连的大鼠的腹内侧下丘脑时，那只大鼠变得非常非常胖，简直肥胖至极。然而，另一只却变得非常瘦，实际上体重减轻了。那么这告诉我们什么？

When they lesioned the ventromedial hypothalamus in one of the rats that was connected to the other rat, that rat got very, very fat. It's just really obese. The other one, however, got very thin. It actually lost weight. So what does this tell us?

这告诉我们，血液中有某种东西在两只动物之间交换，因为它们的血液供应是相连的。这表明有激素或内分泌信号参与进食欲望、饥饿感和食欲。接下来，我们将讨论这些内分泌信号是什么。然后我会立即指出一些你可以使用的切入点，即使你没有与任何东西联体共生，你也可以使用这些点来安排你的进餐频率，并预测你何时会饥饿或不饿。所以让我们来谈谈调节进食、饥饿和饱腹感的内分泌因子。

This tells us that there's something in the blood that's being exchanged between the two animals because it was their blood supply that was linked. And that tells us that there's hormone or endocrine signals that are involved in the desire to eat and hunger and appetite. And so next, we're going to talk about what those endocrine signals are. And then I'm going to immediately point to some entry points that you can use and you can use these even if you're not parabiosed to anything, and that can allow you to time your meal frequency and predict when you're going to be hungry or not. So let's talk about the endocrine factors that regulate feeding hunger and satiety.

我想稍作休息，感谢我们的赞助商之一David。David制作的蛋白棒与众不同，含有28克蛋白质，仅150卡路里且零糖分。没错，28克蛋白质，其中75%的卡路里来自蛋白质。David的这些蛋白棒味道也非常棒。

I'd like to take a quick break and thank one of our sponsors, David. David makes a protein bar unlike any other. It has 28 grams of protein, only 150 calories and zero grams of sugar. That's right, 28 grams of protein and 75% of its calories come from protein. These bars from David also tastes amazing.

我最喜欢的口味是巧克力曲奇面团味，不过我也喜欢巧克力软糖味，还有蛋糕味。基本上我喜欢所有口味，它们都极其美味。就我个人而言，我努力主要吃天然食物。但当我匆忙、不在家或只是想找个快速的下午零食时，我常常发现自己需要高质量蛋白质来源。有了David，我就能以零食的卡路里摄入28克蛋白质，这让我很容易达到每天每磅体重一克蛋白质的目标。

My favorite flavor is chocolate chip cookie dough, but then again, I also like the chocolate fudge flavored one, and I also like the cake flavored one. Basically, I like all the flavors, they're incredibly delicious. For me personally, I strive to eat mostly whole foods. However, when I'm in a rush or I'm away from home, or I'm just looking for a quick afternoon snack, I often find that I'm looking for a high quality protein source. With David, I'm able to get 28 grams of protein with the calories of a snack, which makes it very easy to hit my protein goals of one gram of protein per pound of body weight each day.

而且这让我能在不摄入过多卡路里的情况下实现这一目标。我通常在下午早些时候甚至中午过后吃一根David蛋白棒，以填补午餐和晚餐之间的空隙。我喜欢它带点甜味，吃起来像美味的零食，但同时又能提供28克高质量蛋白质，仅150卡路里。如果你想尝试David，可以访问davidprotein.com/huberman。再次说明，链接是davidprotein.com/huberman。

And it allows me to do that without taking in excess calories. I typically eat a David bar in the early afternoon or even mid afternoon if I want to bridge that gap between lunch and dinner. I like that it's a little bit sweet, so it tastes like a tasty snack, but it's also given me that 28 grams of very high quality protein with just 150 calories. If you would like to try David, you can go to davidprotein.com/huberman. Again, the link is davidprotein.com/huberman.

过去二十年来，食欲喂养科学中一个真正令人兴奋的发现是另一个大脑区域，不仅仅是腹内侧下丘脑，还有一个称为弓状核的脑区。弓状核中有一些非常迷人的神经元群，它们向血液中释放更不可思议的分子和化学物质。这些化学物质就像加速器或刹车一样作用于食欲喂养。首先，弓状核中有一组神经元，即前阿片黑素细胞皮质激素系统。

One of the really exciting things to emerge in the science of feeding an appetite in the last twenty years is the discovery of another brain area, not just the ventromedial hypothalamus, but it's an area of the brain called the arcuate nucleus. And the arcuate nucleus has some really fascinating sets of neurons that release even more incredible molecules and chemicals into the blood. And these chemicals act as accelerators on feeding an appetite or breaks. So, first of all, there are a set of neurons in this arcuate nucleus. It's the pro opiomelanocortin system.

POMC神经元产生一种叫做α-MSH的东西，即黑素细胞刺激激素，α-黑素细胞刺激激素。MSH会降低食欲，它是一种强大的分子，明白吗？所以先记住这一点，MSH降低食欲。现在弓状核中还有另一群神经元叫做AGRP神经元。AGRP神经元会刺激进食。

Now the POMC neurons make something called alpha MSH, melanocyte stimulating hormone, alpha melanocyte stimulating hormone. MSH reduces appetite and it's a powerful molecule, all right? So just put that on the shelf, MSH reduces appetite. Now there's another population of neurons in the arcuate nucleus called the AGRP neurons. The AGRP neurons stimulate eating.

当动物或人一段时间没进食时，这些AGRP神经元的活性会大幅上升。而当我们进食后，MSH的活性和释放会增加。接下来，我们来谈谈一种激活饥饿感的激素肽。这个非常有趣，因为它不仅关系到你是否会感到饥饿，还关系到你何时会感到饥饿。它叫做饥饿素。

The activity in these AGRP neurons goes way up when animals or people haven't eaten for a while. And the activity of MSH, the release of MSH goes up when we've eaten. Next, let's talk about a hormone peptide that activates hunger. And this is a really interesting one because it relates to when you get hungry in addition to the fact that you get hungry at all. And it's called ghrelin.

它的拼写是G H R E L I N。饥饿素实际上是从胃肠道释放的，其主要作用是增加你的进食欲望。它通过多种机制实现这一点，部分是通过刺激一些大脑区域，即那些让你想进食的实际神经元。此外，它还在你的神经系统中产生食物预期信号。

It's spelled G H R E L I N. Ghrelin is released actually from the GI tract and its main role is to increase your desire to eat. And it does that through a variety of mechanisms. Part of that is to stimulate some of the brain areas, the actual neurons that make you want to eat. In addition, it creates food anticipatory signals within your nervous system.

于是你开始思考在那个特定时间你碰巧喜欢吃的食物。这非常有趣。饥饿素就像一种时钟，一种激素时钟，让你在特定时间想要进食。现在，饥饿素的信号是血液中葡萄糖水平的降低。如果血糖降得太低，饥饿素就会从你的肠道分泌出来。

So you start thinking about the things that you happen to like to eat at that particular time of day. And this is fascinating. Ghrelin is sort of like a clock, a hormonal clock that makes you want to eat at particular times. Now, the signal for ghrelin is reduced glucose levels in the blood. If it drops too low, ghrelin is secreted from your gut.

它激活你大脑中不同位置的神经元。我们都听说过著名的巴甫洛夫实验，即巴甫洛夫的狗。你知道，它们在铃铛与食物一起出现后开始对铃铛流口水，当你移除食物后，仅铃铛就能刺激唾液分泌。我们有时也会变得巴甫洛夫式，但很少有人讨论其中的神经通路是什么。事实证明，这些从肠道分泌的激素可以刺激神经元，在一天中的特定时间产生对某些食物的感觉和欲望。

It activates neurons in your brain at various locations. And we all know about the famous Pavlovian experiments of Pavlov's dogs. You know, they start salivating to the bell after the bell was presented with food, you remove the food and then just the bell can stimulate the salivation. We become Pavlovian at times, but rarely is it ever discussed what the neural pathways for that are. And it turns out that these hormones that are secreted from the gut can stimulate the neurons to create a sensation and a desire for certain foods at certain times of day.

你已经做过这个实验。如果你是一个每天大致在同一时间吃早餐的人，比如早上8点，你的饥饿素分泌会开始与你通常进食的时间匹配。它能够覆盖你血液中较低的葡萄糖水平，因为饥饿素系统还接收来自你肝脏中的一个时钟的输入，该时钟与你大脑下丘脑中的时钟相连。这意味着如果你在固定的进餐时间进食，你会在那些进餐时间前几分钟开始感到饥饿。如果你曾想知道为什么你的肚子在一天的特定时间开始咕咕叫，然后你想，哦，我一定是想吃饭了。

You've done this experiment. If you are somebody who eats breakfast at more or less the same time each day, let's say 8AM, your ghrelin secretion will start to match when you typically eat. And it's able to override the low levels of glucose in your bloodstream because the ghrelin system also gets input from a clock in your liver that is linked to the clock in your hypothalamus in your brain. And what this means is if you eat at regular meal times, you will start to get hungry a few minutes before those meals times. If you've ever wondered why your stomach kind of starts to growl because it's a particular time of day and you're like, oh, I must want to eat.

这就是饥饿素。饥饿素作为一种食物预期信号分泌，促使你在固定时间产生进食动力。但这也意味着，如果你突然从规律饮食转为跳过一餐、推迟用餐时间或完全改变进食规律，体内就会存在饥饿素。这种饥饿素会通过作用于大脑层面刺激进食欲望——它激活AGRP神经元，从而引发进食冲动。

Well, that's ghrelin. So ghrelin is secreted as a kind of food anticipatory signal to get you motivated to go eat at regular times. But what that means is that if you suddenly go from eating on a very regular schedule to skipping a meal or pushing your meal timing out or shifting it all, you're going to have ghrelin in your system. And that ghrelin is going to stimulate the desire to eat by acting at the level of your brain. So ghrelin stimulates the AGRP neurons, which makes you want to eat.

饮食规律性等于饥饿素分泌规律性，等于这些AGRP神经元活动规律性，意味着你会在固定时间间隔感到饥饿。既然MSH（促黑素）抑制进食让我们吃得少，而饥饿素让我们吃得多，那么还有一种名为CCK（胆囊收缩素）的激素能有效降低饥饿感。CCK存在于胃肠道，由胃肠道释放，其释放受两种因素调控：一是特定神经元亚群监测肠道内容物（具体成分），二是肠道黏液内膜和肠道微生物群的某些元素。

Regularity of eating equals regularity of ghrelin secretion equals regularity of activity of these AGRP neurons, meaning you will be hungry at very regular intervals. So if MSH inhibits feeding makes us want to eat less and ghrelin makes us want to eat more, there's another hormone called CCK, cholecystokinin that is potent in reducing our levels of hunger. Now CCK is in the GI tract, it's released from the GI tract and its release is governed by two things. One is a subset of very specialized neurons that detect what's in the gut, the specific contents of the gut and by certain elements of the mucosa of the mucus lining of the gut and the gut microbiome. So what's really interesting is that CCK is stimulated by fatty acids, amino acids, and particular amino acids that we'll talk about, as well as by sugar.

有趣的是，CCK的释放会被脂肪酸、氨基酸（包括我们将讨论的特定氨基酸）以及糖类激活。那么哪些肠道脂肪酸会刺激CCK释放呢？Omega-3脂肪酸和共轭亚油酸（CLA，来自食物或补充剂）会刺激CCK释放，从而降低或抑制食欲。我提到的另一种刺激CCK的物质是氨基酸。当我们进食时，身体能将不同宏量营养素（碳水化合物、脂肪、蛋白质）分解为糖和葡萄糖，进而通过克雷布斯循环转化为ATP等能量——这部分内容我们留到未来节目讨论。

So which fatty acids in the gut stimulate the release of CCK? Omega-three fatty acids and conjugated linoleic acid, CLA, either from food or from supplements stimulate the release of CCK, which then reduces or at least blunts appetite. The other thing that stimulates CCK that I mentioned are amino acids. So when we eat, we have the ability to break down different macronutrients, carbohydrates, fats, or proteins into sugars and glucose that then we can convert to ATP and all that stuff from an Krebs cycle from high school. We're not going to go into that today, that's for a future episode.

氨基酸既可通过糖异生过程将蛋白质转化为能量，也能被分解后重新合成用于修复肌肉组织和其他细胞修复。它们参与蛋白质合成的各种过程。这意味着：如果我们摄入适量种类的氨基酸，适量摄取Omega-3和CLA（共轭亚油酸，来自食物或补充剂），就能抑制食欲。食欲受到压制，我们不会陷入过度饥饿状态。

Amino acids both can be used as energy through a process called gluconeogenesis of converting proteins into energy, or those amino acids can be broken down and then rebuilt into things like repairing muscle tissue, as well as other forms of cellular repair. They're involved in all sorts of things related to protein synthesis. What does this mean? If we eat the proper amino acids at the proper levels, if we ingest omega-3s and CLAs conjugated linoleic acids at the proper levels or get them from supplements, there is a blunting of appetite. Appetite is kept clamped and we don't become hyperphagic.

我们不会暴饮暴食，而是保持在健康正常范围内进食。这一点非常重要，因为大多数人不知道：进食本质上是脂肪和氨基酸的觅食行为。即使是无意识的，我们也会持续进食直到激活CCK。当然，停止进食还有其他原因，比如肠道食物体积过大会导致饱胀感。

We don't overeat, we tend to eat within healthy or normal ranges. So, this is very important because most people don't understand that when we're eating, we are basically fat foraging and amino acid foraging. In other words, even if it's not conscious, we are eating until we trigger the activation of CCK. Now, are other reasons why we shut down eating too. The volume of food in our gut can be large and we can feel very distended.

这是明显的物理原因，但在潜意识层面，肠道通过CCK等机制向大脑传递

That's the physical reason obviously, but at a subconscious level, the gut is informing the brain via CCK and other mechanisms when we've ingested enough of what we need. So as you can see, feeding is an interplay between brain and body, and it's some of the micronutrients and even the breakdown of particular nutrients that's putting the accelerator or the brake on the feeding process. You are essentially trying to eat to get these nutrients and then a signal can be deployed up to your brain that you're not really interested in eating that much more. I'd like to take a quick break and acknowledge our sponsor AG1. AG1 is a vitamin mineral probiotic drink that also includes prebiotics and adaptogens.

AG1旨在满足所有基础营养需求，且口感出色。我从2012年开始饮用AG1，当时我的补充剂预算非常有限——事实上只够购买一种补充剂，而我很庆幸选择了AG1。原因在于：尽管我努力通过天然食物和轻加工食品获取营养，但仅靠饮食很难足量摄入水果、蔬菜、维生素、矿物质、微量营养素和适应原。

AG1 is designed to cover all of your foundational nutritional needs, and it tastes great. Now I've been drinking AG1 since 2012, and I started doing that at a time when my budget for supplements was really limited. In fact, I only had enough money back then to purchase one supplement, and I'm so glad that I made that supplement AG1. The reason for that is even though I strive to eat most of my foods from whole foods and minimally processed foods, it's very difficult for me to get enough fruits, vegetables, vitamins and minerals, micronutrients, and adaptogens from food alone. And I need to do that.

我还注意到（考虑到肠道微生物群与大脑的关联，这完全合理）：规律服用AG1（对我而言是晨间或上午一剂，下午或傍晚再一剂）能显著改善状态。目前他们正在赠送5份免费旅行装外加一年份维生素D3K2供应，请访问drinkag1.com/huberman领取特惠。食物中有个特定成分能强力影响CCK，我猜99.9%的人都不知晓这一点。

I also noticed, and this makes perfect sense given the relationship between the gut microbiome and the brain, that when I regularly take AG1, which for me means a serving in the morning or mid morning, and again, later in the afternoon or evening that I have. Right now they're giving away five free travel packs plus a year supply of vitamin D3K2. Again, that's drinkag1.com/huberman to claim that special offer. There's one particular aspect of food that can powerfully impact CCK. And I think most people, I'm guessing 99.9% of people out there are not aware of this.

这与高度加工食品有关。避免高度加工食品有多重理由，如果你对这个话题以及美国全食品向高度加工食品转变的历史感兴趣，我强烈推荐观看加州大学旧金山分校Robert Lustig博士的YouTube视频。他精彩阐述了这段历史，以及食品工业为何开始添加额外糖盐、将食品商品化的原因，非常引人入胜。

And it has to do with highly processed foods. There's a lot of reasons why one would want to avoid highly processed foods. In fact, if you're interested in that topic and the history of whole foods transitioning to highly processed foods in this country, I highly recommend you listen to a YouTube video by Doctor. Robert Lustig, he's University of California, San Francisco. It gives a beautiful description of the history of this and why the food industry started packing in additional sugars and salts and turning foods into commodities is really fascinating.

这并非阴谋论，全是科学事实。这个讲座非常精彩，拥有数百万观看量，很容易找到。不过避免高度加工食品还有另一个原因——与所谓的乳化剂有关。

It has no conspiracy theory. It's just all scientific facts. It's really a wonderful lecture. Has millions of views should be very easy to find. There's another reason to avoid highly processed foods however, and that has to do with what's called emulsifiers.

现在，你们中的许多人其实都熟悉乳化剂，尽管你们可能没有意识到。当你在洗衣时加入含有乳化剂的洗涤剂时，这些乳化剂的作用就是将脂肪分子与水分子结合在一起，使它们能够分离并分解，从而去除衣物上的污渍等。加工食品中添加了大量乳化剂，这些乳化剂促使某些化学反应发生，从而延长了这些食品的保质期。

Now, many of you are familiar with emulsifiers even though you don't know it. When you put detergent in the laundry that contains emulsifiers. The goal of that detergent is to bring together fatty molecules with water molecules and be able to dissociate them and break them up to get the stains out of clothes and things of that sort. There are a lot of emulsifiers put into processed foods. And those emulsifiers allow certain chemical reactions to occur that extends the shelf life of those foods.

为什么乳化剂有害？好吧，有害的原因有很多，但就我们今天讨论的机制而言，它们有害的原因是：当你摄入这些食物时，你会将这些乳化剂带入肠道，这些乳化剂会剥离肠道的黏膜内衬，并实际上导致支配肠道的神经元——那些延伸出我们称为轴突的小突起进入肠道的神经元——更深地缩回肠道。结果就是，你摄入了一大堆食物，但像胆囊收缩素（CCK）这样的信号却从未被释放。那些实际上抑制饥饿的信号从未被真正触发。因此，你反而会想吃更多这类高度加工食品。

Why are emulsifiers bad? Okay, there are lot of reasons why they're bad, but the reason why they're bad for the mechanisms that we've been talking about today is that when you ingest those foods, you're bringing those emulsifiers into your gut and those emulsifiers strip away the mucosal lining of the gut and they actually cause the neurons that innervate the gut that extend those little processes we call axons into the gut to retract deeper into the gut. And as a consequence, you're ingesting a bunch of food and the signals like CCK never get deployed. The signals that actually shut down hunger are never actually triggered. And so as a consequence, you want to eat far more of these highly processed foods.

此外，如果你从食用高度加工食品转向非高度加工食品，你将无法像以前那样准确地测量这些食物中的氨基酸、糖和脂肪酸的含量。你实际上在微观层面上对肠道的黏膜内衬造成了结构性损伤——请原谅，是结构性损伤。不过，只要你在一定时间内远离高度加工食品，这一切都可以修复，但这些乳化剂的负面影响是相当真实的。所以，为了说得更清楚简单：来自高度加工食品的乳化剂限制了你的肠道检测所吃食物内容的能力，从而阻碍了饱腹感信号——那些抑制饥饿的信号——的释放。除此之外，还有一个并行的机制在起作用，我在之前的一期节目中谈到过，但我会再次提醒你：你的肠道中有神经元在感知糖分，并通过迷走神经向大脑发送潜意识信号。

In addition, if you then go from eating a highly processed food to non highly processed foods, you're not able to measure the amounts of amino acids, sugars, and fatty acids in those foods as accurately. You've actually done structural damage at a micro level, but structural damage, excuse me, to the mucosal lining of the gut. Now, can all be repaired if you stay away from highly processed foods for some period of time, but the negative effects of these emulsifiers are quite real. So to make it really clean and simple, emulsifiers from highly processed foods are limiting your gut's ability to detect what's in the foods you eat and therefore to deploy the satiety signals, the signals that shut down hunger. In addition to that, there's a parallel mechanism at play that I talked about in a previous episode, but I'll remind you again that you have neurons in your gut that are sensing sugar and are sending a subconscious signal up to the brain via the vagus nerve.

而这些神经元会触发多巴胺的释放，这让你渴望吃更多那种食物。所以现在，你有并行的信号让你想吃更多的糖，让你不知道自己吃了多少糖，并且这些信号破坏了神经系统的输入，而这些输入本应向你的大脑和身体其他部分发出信号，表明你已经获得了足够的脂肪酸和足够的氨基酸。所以这些高度加工食品真的非常糟糕。我并不是在这里说，永远不要享受任何种类的加工食品。那样我会很虚伪，因为我偶尔也会吃加工食品。

And those neurons trigger the release of dopamine, which makes you crave more of that food. So now you've got parallel signals making you want to eat more sugar, making you unaware of how much sugar you've eaten and that are disrupting the inputs to the nervous system that signal to the rest of your brain and body that you've obtained enough fatty acids and you've obtained enough amino acids. So these highly processed foods are really terrible. And I'm not out here to say, never enjoy a processed food of any kind. I'd be a hypocrite because I do eat processed foods from time to time.

尽管我倾向于吃的那些，我尽量选择更健康的品种，但吃天然食品具有巨大的价值，而吃高度加工食品对肠道和肠脑轴有着巨大的负面影响。底线是，高度加工食品对你有害。它们会增加体重增长。它们以破坏胆囊收缩素（CCK）和正常饱腹感信号等方式扰乱你的肠道内衬。所以，有太多理由说明这些高度加工食品非常糟糕。

Although the ones that I tend to eat, I try and make of the healthier variety, but eating whole foods has tremendous value and eating highly processed food has tremendous negative impact on the gut and on the gut brain axis. The bottom line is that highly processed foods are just bad for you. They increase weight gain. They disrupt the lining of your gut in a way that disrupts things like CCK and proper satiety signals. So there's just so many reasons why these highly processed foods are terrible.

而且它们可以解释我们在过去五十年中看到的许多健康不良影响，不仅是在美国，而是在全世界。糖尿病的急剧增加，青少年糖尿病，我们在这条路上已经走得如此之远，真是令人瞩目。而且很明显，这几乎是一个确凿的证据，表明了其原因。如果你想了解更多，请参考Lustig的讲座。他还阐明了为什么非加工食品在家庭或个人层面，以及在社会层面都更加经济。

And they can explain a lot of the ill health effects that we've seen in the last fifty years, not just in The United States, but all over the world. The enormous increase in diabetes, juvenile diabetes, it's just remarkable how far down the path of dad we've gone. And it's clear, it's almost a smoking gun what the cause of this is. If you'd like to learn more about that, please refer to the Lustig lecture. He also spells out why non processed foods is far more economical in terms of just at the level of the household or individual, as well as at the societal level.

真的很有趣的内容。我强烈推荐你去看看。那么现在，让我们继续讨论一些其他调节饥饿和饱腹感的激素。特别是胰岛素。你们可能之前听说过胰岛素。

Really interesting stuff. I highly recommend you check it out. So now let's move on to some other hormones that regulate hunger and satiety. In particular insulin. Now you've probably heard of insulin before.

胰岛素是1型糖尿病患者所缺乏的东西。这就是为什么他们每次进食时都必须注射胰岛素。他们必须这样做的原因是，当他们进食时，他们的食物被分解成葡萄糖。为了将葡萄糖输送到身体的适当组织，并控制葡萄糖水平，你需要胰岛素。所以，思考胰岛素和葡萄糖最简单的方式是：当你吃东西时，食物被分解成糖。

Insulin is the thing that's lacking in type one diabetics. That's why they have to inject insulin whenever they eat. The reason they have to do that is because when they eat, their foods are broken down into glucose. And in order to shuttle glucose to the appropriate tissues in the body and also to keep glucose levels in check, you need insulin. So the simplest way to think about insulin and glucose is that when you eat, that food is broken down into sugars.

无论它是脂肪、糖，或者最终是蛋白质，这一点都是成立的，它们会被氧化成燃料，正如我们所说，你的血糖需要保持在一个特定的范围内。低血糖意味着太低，高血糖意味着太高，而所谓的正常血糖（euglycemic）是健康范围。通常，这个健康范围，即正常血糖范围，大约是70到100毫克每分升。为什么将葡萄糖保持在一个特定水平很重要？一旦你理解了这一点，控制葡萄糖就开始有了 rationale（理由依据），而实现这一点的方法也开始变得更有意义。

That's true whether or not it's fats or it's sugars or eventually if it's proteins, they are oxidized into fuels as we say, your blood sugar needs to be kept in a particular range. Hypoglycemic means too low, hyperglycemic means too high and what they called euglycemic, EU glycemic is the healthy range. Now, what those healthy ranges are in general, the healthy range, the euglycemic range is about 70 to a 100 nanograms per deciliter. Why is it important that glucose be kept at a particular level? Once you understand that, keeping glucose in check starts to have a rationale behind it and the ways to do that start to make a lot more sense.

原因是，如果葡萄糖水平过高，由于我们的细胞（尤其是神经元）与葡萄糖相互作用的方式，高水平的葡萄糖会损害神经元。它实际上可以杀死神经元。你可能会开始出现所谓的周围神经病变——抱歉，是神经病变。某些形式糖尿病的一个症状是，人们开始失去手指、手或脚的感觉，并且可能开始失明。这就是糖尿病视网膜病变。因此，胰岛素管理你的葡萄糖水平非常重要。

So, reason is if glucose levels get too high because of the way that our cells in particular neurons interact with glucose, high levels of glucose can damage neurons. It can actually kill You can start getting what are called peripheral, excuse me, neuropathies. One of the symptoms of some forms of diabetes is that people start losing the sensation of touch in their fingers or their hands or their feet, and they can start going blind. There's diabetic retinopathy. So it's very important that insulin manage your glucose levels.

现在还有2型糖尿病，胰腺会分泌胰岛素，但患者存在胰岛素不敏感。受体功能出现紊乱，胰岛素不敏感与完全没有胰岛素并不完全相同，但部分机制相似。1型糖尿病通常因患者突然体重下降而被发现，因为他们处理血糖的方式与以往不同。2型糖尿病虽然不总是，但往往与超重和肥胖有关。这两种都是具有挑战性的疾病。

Now there's also type two diabetes where there's insulin secreted from the pancreas, but people are insulin insensitive. There's a disruption in the receptors and insulin insensitivity isn't quite the same as having no insulin at all, but it parallels some of the same mechanisms. Now type one diabetes is often picked up because someone has a sudden weight loss because they're not processing blood sugar the same way they were before. Type two diabetes is often, although not always associated with being overweight and with obesity. Both of them are challenging conditions.

2型糖尿病几乎总是可以通过控制体重来管理。当然还有处方药和补充剂可以帮助管理这些。我们会讨论所有这些。但对大多数没有糖尿病的人来说，重要的是管理葡萄糖，将其保持在正常血糖范围内。有多种不同的方法可以实现这一点。

Type two diabetes almost always can be managed by managing one's weight. And of course there are prescription drugs and supplements that can help manage those. We're going to talk about all of that. But for most people that don't have diabetes, the important thing is to manage glucose, to keep it in that euglycemic range. And there are a number of different ways to do that.

其中一些是行为性的，一些是基于饮食的，还有一些是基于补充剂或处方药的。所以我们现在来谈谈这些。我想稍作休息，感谢我们的赞助商之一Mettina。Mettina生产散装和即饮马黛茶。我经常讨论马黛茶的好处，比如调节血糖、高抗氧化剂含量、改善消化的方式以及可能的神经保护作用。

Some of them are behavioral, some of them are diet based and some of them are based on supplements or prescription drugs. So let's talk about those now. I'd like to take a quick break and acknowledge one of our sponsors, Mettina. Mettina makes loose leaf and ready to drink Yerba Mate. Now I've often discussed Yerba Mate's benefits, such as regulating blood sugar, it's high antioxidant content, the ways it can improve digestion, and it's possible neuroprotective effects.

正因为所有这些原因，马黛茶是我首选的咖啡因来源。我也喝马黛茶，因为我就是喜欢它的味道。虽然市面上有很多不同的马黛茶饮料选择，但我个人最喜欢的无疑是Mattina。它采用最高质量的原料制成，味道浓郁而纯净，完全没有那种单宁的余味。

It's for all those reasons that Yerba Mate is my preferred source of caffeine. I also drink Yerba Mate because I simply love the taste. And while there are a lot of different choices out there of Yerba Mate drinks, my personal favorite far and away is Mattina. It's made of the highest quality ingredients, which gives it a really rich, but also a really clean taste. So none of that tannic aftertaste.

事实上，鉴于Mattina的味道绝对惊艳及其对质量的承诺，我去年决定成为该公司的部分所有者。我特别喜欢Mattina的无糖冷萃罐装马黛茶的味道，这是我亲自参与开发的。我现在每天至少喝三罐。我也喜欢他们的散装Mattina，我每天早上都用葫芦杯喝。所以我加热水，慢慢啜饮，然后在上午和下午早些时候喝一些冷萃。

In fact, given how absolutely amazing Mattina tastes and their commitment to quality, I decided to become a part owner in the company last year. In particular, I love the taste of Mattina's canned zero sugar cold brew Yerba Mate, which I personally helped develop. I drink at least three cans of those a day now. I also love their loose leaf Mattina, which I drink every morning from the gourd. So I add hot water and sip on that thing, and I'll have some cold brews throughout the morning and early afternoon.

我发现它让我一整天精力充沛，晚上也能很好地入睡，没有任何问题。如果你想尝试matina，可以访问drinkmatina.com/huberman。目前，Mattina正在提供购买两箱冷萃马黛茶即可免费获得一磅散装马黛茶并免运费的活动。再次提醒，访问drinkmattina.com/huberman即可获得免费的一袋散装马黛茶并免运费。所以，如果你吃东西，尤其是吃碳水化合物，血糖就会上升。

I find it gives me terrific energy all day long and I'm able to fall asleep perfectly well at night, no problems. If you'd like to try matina, you can go to drinkmatina.com/huberman. Right now, Mattina is offering a free one pound bag of loose leaf Yerba Mate tea and free shipping with the purchase of two cases of their cold brew Yerba Mate. Again, that's drinkmattina.com/huberman to get a free bag of Yerba Mate loose leaf tea and free shipping. So if you eat, and in particular, if you eat carbohydrates, blood glucose goes up.

如果你吃脂肪，血糖上升的程度要小得多。如果你吃蛋白质，根据蛋白质的类型，它最终会被分解为燃料或组装成氨基酸链用于蛋白质合成和其他组织及身体功能的修复，但血糖会上升然后保持在范围内。当你饥饿时，你会分泌一种不同的激素，叫做胰高血糖素。胰高血糖素的主要作用是从肝脏和肌肉中提取能量储存。一旦这些耗尽，你最终会动用体脂。

If you eat fats, blood glucose goes up to a far less degree. And if you eat proteins, depending on the protein, it'll eventually be broken down for fuel or assembled into amino acid chains for protein synthesis and repair of other tissues and bodily functions, but glucose goes up and then is kept in range. When you are hungry, you secrete a different hormone and that's called glucagon. And glucagon's main role is to pull stores of energy out of the liver and the muscles. And once those are depleted, you'll eventually tap into body fat.

所以，为了简化，我们现在要考虑的两种推拉系统是：胰岛素系统管理葡萄糖，而胰高血糖素系统从你的肝脏和肌肉中提取能量作为即时燃料。如果你长时间活动，所有糖原储存耗尽或接近耗尽，你最终会从体脂中提取燃料。那么，这一切意味着什么？假设你吃了一顿饭，包括米饭（碳水化合物）、一些肉或鱼，比如一块三文鱼和一些蔬菜，一些纤维蔬菜如芦笋或卷心菜之类的。如果你一次性吃完所有东西，吃一口这个，吃一口那个，混合在一起，那么你会经历胰岛素和血糖的适度快速上升。

So, the two kind of push and pull systems that we're going to think about now to keep this simple is that you have the insulin system managing glucose, and you've got the glucagon system pulling energy out of your liver and muscles for immediate fuel. And eventually you'll pull fuel out of body fat if you've been active for a very long time and all your glycogen stores are depleted or close to depleted. So, what does this all mean? Let's say you had a meal and that meal consisted of rice, a carbohydrate, some meat or fish, let's say a piece of salmon and some vegetable, some fibrous vegetable like asparagus or cabbage or something like that. If you were to eat all of that at once, you take a bite of one, a bite of the other, you mix it up, then you'll experience an increase in insulin and increase in blood glucose that's moderately fast.

它会上升得相当快。值得注意的是，你消耗每种宏量营养素的顺序对胰岛素和葡萄糖分泌到血液中的速率以及这些水平上升的速度有相当深远的影响。如果你先吃纤维类食物，需要大量咀嚼，但血糖不会大幅上升，这实际上会抑制葡萄糖的释放，直到你吃鱼和米饭，但信不信由你，它实际上会抑制米饭引起的葡萄糖上升。现在，我不是在说神经质地按顺序单独吃每种宏量营养素，我只是想给你描绘一下通常发生的情况。那么，这一切意味着什么？

It's going to increase pretty quickly. What's remarkable is that the order that you consume each macronutrient has a pretty profound influence on the rate of insulin and glucose secretion into the blood and how quickly those levels rise. If you were to eat the fibrous thing first, so a lot of chewing, but not a big rise in blood glucose, that will actually blunt the release of glucose until you eat the fish and the rice, but believe it or not, it will actually blunt the glucose increase that the rice would cause. Now, I'm not talking about neurotically eating each macronutrient separately in sequence, I'm just trying to give you a picture of what's happening ordinarily. So, what does this all mean?

这意味着如果你想要血糖急剧上升，你非常非常饿，那么你应该先吃含碳水化合物的食物，或者你应该吃一堆混合的宏量营养素。比如汉堡或三明治，面包和里面的所有东西一起吃掉。通常那也包括蛋白质和蔬菜。如果你想要血糖上升更温和，或者想抑制血糖上升，那么先吃至少一些纤维类食物，然后是蛋白质，最后是碳水化合物，你会注意到你的血糖会更稳定地上升，并且你会更早地在餐中达到饱腹感。基本上，你要避免的是血糖的急剧上升。

It means that if you want a steep increase in glucose, you are very, very hungry, then you should eat the carbohydrate laden food first, or you should eat a bunch of macronutrients combined. So that would be like the hamburger or the sandwich, the bread, the whatever's in that sandwich altogether. Usually that's protein and vegetables as well. If you want to have a kind of more modest increase in glucose or you want to blunt the increase in glucose, then have the, at least some of the fibrous thing first, and then the protein, and then the carbohydrate, you will notice that your blood glucose will rise more steadily and that you'll achieve satiety earlier in the meal. Basically what you're trying to avoid are steep increases in blood sugar.

而你进食的顺序对此有着巨大影响。另一个对血糖曲线是平缓还是陡峭产生巨大影响的因素，取决于你最近是否在运动、正在运动或在进食后开始运动。事实证明，运动可以非常非常有效地调节你的血糖水平。如果你在进食前进行任何剧烈运动，甚至只是散步、慢跑或骑自行车等，你的血糖水平都会有所抑制。甚至只是在餐后活动，即使是平静轻松的散步，也能真正改善血糖调节方式。

And the order that you eat foods has an enormous impact on that. The other thing that has an enormous impact on how long and shallow or how steep that curve of glucose is depends on whether or not you recently were moving, are moving or start moving after you eat. So it turns out that your blood glucose levels can be modulated very, very power fully by movement. If you did any kind of intense exercise or even just walking or jogging or cycling anything before you eat, your blood glucose levels will be dampened somewhat. And even just moving after a meal, even just a calm, easy walk can really adjust the ways in which blood sugar regulated for the better.

另外我想简单谈一下稳定血糖与易变血糖或不稳定血糖的概念。有些人就是血糖稳定，他们可以长时间不进食而感觉良好。另一些人则会变得非常颤抖、非常紧张，或者当他们进食时，会感到非常兴奋。有时甚至会出汗，但无论你的血糖是否波动不定或是否稳定，都可能受到多种因素的影响。

The other thing I'd like to address for a moment is this notion of stable blood sugar versus labile blood sugar or unstable blood sugar. Some people just have stable blood sugar. They can go long periods of time without eating and feel fine. Other people get really shaky, really jittery and or when they do eat, they feel really keyed up. Sometimes they'll even sweat, but whether or not your blood sugar is all over the place or whether or stable can be impacted by a number of things.

其中之一就是运动。如今，人们对所谓的区域二有氧运动很感兴趣，这是一种稳态有氧运动，即使在相当高的输出下你也能只用鼻子呼吸，甚至可能进行对话。持续30分钟到一小时或更长时间的区域二有氧运动（对于耐力运动员来说）可以对血糖调节产生积极影响，以至于人们可以坐下来享受任何高糖食物，比如热软糖圣代。血糖管理非常好，胰岛素敏感性很高（这是好事），你可以将血糖管理到不会让你颤抖或扰乱你的程度。基本上，每周进行三到四次30到60分钟的区域二有氧运动，会使你的血糖非常稳定。

One of those things is exercise. So these days there's a lot of interest in what they call zone two cardio, which is that kind of steady state cardio where you can just nasal breathe even at pretty high output where you could maybe have a conversation. Zone two cardio that lasts anywhere from thirty minutes to an hour or sometimes more for you endurance athletes can create positive effects on blood sugar regulation such that you people can sit down and enjoy whatever it is, the hot fudge sundae or whatever the high sugar content food is. And blood glucose management is so good, your insulin sensitivity is so high, which is a good thing that you can manage that blood glucose to the point where it doesn't really make you shaky, it doesn't disrupt you. Basically doing zone two cardio for thirty to sixty minutes, three to four times a week makes your blood sugar really stable.

出于多种原因，这是一件很有吸引力的事情。另一方面，高强度间歇训练或抗阻训练（又名重量训练）非常擅长刺激各种促进糖原重新包装的分子。所以，短跑、大重量举重、循环式举重（只要有一定的合理阻力）都会触发各种机制，鼓励身体将葡萄糖输送回糖原，转化为肌肉组织中的糖原，补充肝脏储备等等。我应该提到，高强度间歇训练或各种举重训练的一个优点是，它还能长期提高基础代谢率。

And that's an attractive thing for a variety of reasons. On the flip side, high intensity interval training or resistance training, AKA weight training are very good at stimulating the various molecules that promote repackaging of glycogen. So sprints, heavy weight lifting, circuit type weight lifting provided there's some reasonable degree of resistance. Those are going to trigger all sorts of mechanisms that are going to encourage the body to shuttle glucose back into glycogen, convert into glycogen into muscle tissue, restock the liver, etcetera. And I should mention that one of the advantages of high intensity interval training or weightlifting of various kinds is that it also, it causes long standing increases in basal metabolic rate.

现在我想谈谈调节控制进食和饱腹感的激素系统的处方药。有一种处方药二甲双胍，它是作为糖尿病治疗药物开发的，它能有效降低血糖，对降低血糖有显著效果。二甲双胍涉及肝脏中线粒体作用的改变，这是它消耗或降低血糖的主要方式。

Now I'd like to turn to prescription drugs that regulate the hormone systems controlling feeding and satiety. There's a prescription drug Metformin, which was developed as a treatment for diabetes and it works potently to reduce blood glucose. It has dramatic effects in lowering blood glucose. Metformin involves changes to mitochondrial action in the liver. That's its main way of depleting or reducing blood glucose.

它通过所谓的AMPK途径做到这一点，并整体提高胰岛素敏感性。二甲双胍是一种强效药物。事实上，我很惊讶这么多人寻求它，因为据我所知，大多数寻求它的人并非糖尿病患者。我确实想提一下，因为我相信你们中有些人好奇生酮饮食。我将做一整期关于酮症与大脑和身体的节目，但生酮饮食在22项研究中被证明能显著降低血糖。

And it does so through the so called AMPK pathway and it increases insulin sensitivity overall. Metformin is a powerful drug. In fact, I'm surprised that so many people have sought it out given that most of the people that I'm aware of that sought it out are not diabetic. I do want to mention because I'm sure some of you out there are curious about the ketogenic diet. I'm going to do an entire episode about ketosis and the brain and the body, but the ketogenic diet has been shown in 22 studies to have a notable decrease on blood glucose.

这并不奇怪，因为生酮饮食的本质是你摄入极少或完全不摄入会促进胰岛素和血糖大幅飙升的食物。如果你摄入足够的蛋白质，其中一些蛋白质当然可以通过糖异生转化为葡萄糖。但生酮饮食在调节血糖（即葡萄糖）方面得到了非常强有力的支持。但生酮饮食的具体效果，以及我稍后会谈到的一个特定效果（但我现在先提一下），就是生酮饮食能够调整甲状腺激素水平，使得如果你在酮症状态太久后恢复摄入碳水化合物，你对甲状腺和碳水化合物的管理就不那么好了。这一点也已被证明。

And that is not surprising because you're essence of the ketogenic diet is that you're consuming very little or zero of the foods that promote big spikes in insulin and glucose. If you consume enough protein, some of that protein can be converted into glucose, of course, through gluconeogenesis. But the ketogenic diet has very strong support for its role in regulating blood sugar, which is glucose. But the specific effects of the ketogenic diet and one particular effect that I'll address later, but I'll mention now, which is the ability of the ketogenic diet to adjust thyroid hormone levels in ways that make it such that if you return to eating carbohydrates after being in ketosis for too long, you don't manage thyroid and carbohydrates as well. That has been shown as well.

所以我们将在未来的节目中深入探讨酮症。所以对于你们这些生酮爱好者，别担心。我当然不反对生酮饮食。实际上，我不反对任何特定的营养计划。我知道它对我有效，至少在我人生的这个阶段，如果需要我会更新它。

So we're going to dive deep into ketosis in a future episode. So for you ketonistas out there, don't worry. I certainly have nothing against ketogenic diet. I actually don't have anything for against any particular nutrition plan. I know it works for me, at least at this stage of my life, and I'll update it if I need to.

我只是想尽可能多地为你提供信息，以便你能以符合你特定目标的方式在这个领域中导航。我想稍作休息，感谢我们的赞助商之一Element。Element是一种电解质饮料，包含了你所需的一切，而没有你不需要的。这意味着电解质、钠、镁和钾的比例正确，但没有糖。我们都应该知道，适当的水分补充对于最佳的大脑和身体功能至关重要。

I'm simply trying to get you as much information as I possibly can so that you can navigate through that landscape in a way that's in keeping with your particular goals. I'd like to take a quick break and thank one of our sponsors, Element. Element is an electrolyte drink that has everything you need and nothing you don't. That means the electrolytes, sodium, magnesium, and potassium in the correct ratios, but no sugar. We should all know that proper hydration is critical for optimal brain and body function.

事实上，即使是轻微程度的脱水也会在很大程度上降低你的认知和身体表现。同样重要的是，你不仅要水分充足，还要以正确的比例获得足量的电解质。将一包Element溶解在水中饮用，可以非常容易地确保你获得充足的水分和电解质。为了确保我两者都摄入足够，我早上醒来时会将一包Element溶解在大约16到32盎司的水中，并且基本上这是我早上第一件做的事。

In fact, even a slight degree of dehydration can diminish your cognitive and physical performance to a considerable degree. It's also important that you're not just hydrated, but that you get adequate amounts of electrolytes in the right ratios. Drinking a packet of Element dissolved in water makes it very easy to ensure that you're getting adequate amounts of hydration and electrolytes. To make sure that I'm getting proper amounts of both, I dissolve one packet of Element in about 16 to 32 ounces of water when I wake up in the morning. And I drink that basically first thing in the morning.

在进行任何形式的体育锻炼时，我也会喝一包溶解在水中的Element，尤其是在炎热天气大量出汗、流失水分和电解质的日子里。Element有多种美味口味可供选择。我喜欢西瓜味、覆盆子味、柑橘味，基本上所有口味都喜欢。如果你想尝试Element，可以访问drinkelement.com/huberman，购买任何Element饮品混合包即可获赠样品包。再次提醒，Element的拼写是L M N T。

I'll also drink a packet of Element dissolved in water during any kind of physical exercise that I'm doing, especially on hot days when I'm sweating a lot and losing water and electrolytes. There are a bunch of different great tasting flavors of Element. I like the watermelon, I like the raspberry, I like the citrus, basically I like all of them. If you'd like to try Element, you can go to drinkelement.com/huberman to claim an Element sample pack with the purchase of any Element drink mix. Again, that's Drink Element spelled L M N T.

所以请访问drinkelement.com/huberman领取免费样品包。现在你已经了解了很多关于血糖及其管理方式的知识，以及如何根据个人需求更好地进行管理。这也是我们回顾医学文献的好机会，因为它真实展现了我们在理解这些重要机制方面取得的巨大进展，并为我们指明了一些可操作的方案方向。糖尿病——由于缺乏胰岛素导致血糖急剧升高——早在公元前1500年就已被认知，这实在令人惊叹。

So it's drinkelement.com/huberman to claim a free sample pack. So now you understand a lot about blood sugar and how it's managed and the ways that you can manage it better depending on your particular needs. This is also a good opportunity for us to look back at some of the medical literature, because it really points to just how far we've come in terms of understanding these important mechanisms. And it points us in the direction of some actionable protocols. So diabetes, which is these huge increases in blood glucose, because there's no insulin was known about as early as 1,500 BC, which is just incredible.

当时的医生在不知道血糖具体为何物的情况下，通过特定方法识别出某些人血糖偏高：他们收集不同患者的尿液，发现蚂蚁会优先趋向并取食某些患者的尿液。他们由此意识到尿液中的某种物质与突然体重下降及其他可能非常不幸的健康症状相关。虽然不知道具体是什么，但他们确信血液和尿液中存在关键物质。这种通过尿液检测血糖的方法从公元前1500年早期阶段一直延续了很长时间——事实上直到1674年，牛津大学的医生仍通过分析尿液来判断谁患有病理性高血糖。

And the way physicians then understood that certain people had high blood glucose without actually knowing what blood glucose was, is that they would take the urine of particular patients and they'd find that ants preferably move toward and consume the urine of certain patients and not others. And they understood that there was something in that urine that was correlated with a sudden weight loss and some of the other probably very unfortunate health symptoms that these people were experiencing. So they knew that there was something in blood and urine. Now this business of measuring blood sugar from the urine has been something that lasted way beyond these early stages of 1,500 BC. Turns out that as late as 1674, physicians at Oxford University were figuring out who had pathologically high levels of blood glucose by analyzing their urine.

他们当时检测尿液甜度的方法（这是医学史实）是直接品尝不同患者的尿液样本，通过对比建立对过度甜味尿液的直觉判断。对于从事医疗行业或即将进入该领域的朋友，请放心这种方法早已被淘汰。我们不妨反思医学行业的发展：如今我们完全无需依靠蚂蚁或亲自品尝来判断尿液成分，就能通过血液和尿液检测获得精确数据。人类作为物种确实在不断进步。

And again, they were measuring the sweetness of their urine, but, and this is medical fact, they would do this by taking urine samples from different patients and tasting them. And they developed an intuitive sense of what excessively sweet urine was relative to the other urines that they had tasted. So, for those of you that are in the medical profession or those of you that are seeking out the medical profession, do understand this is not done anymore. And you can also just reflect on how far we've come in terms of the medical profession itself in our ability to measure things from the blood and measure things from urine without having to ask ants which urine is sweeter or ask oneself which urine is sweeter. So indeed we are making progress as a species.

在结束今天内容前，我想介绍一个很多人会觉得实用的工具——我自己就是忠实用户。虽然摄入量不大，但我坚持饮用含咖啡因的马黛茶（一种高咖啡因茶饮），通常安排在清晨。我会刻意延迟到醒后两小时饮用（往期节目解释过这是为了维持良好的清醒度与专注力曲线）。

Before we close out today, I want to talk about one more tool that many of you will probably find useful. I certainly have, I'm a big consumer of caffeine, although I don't consume a ton of it, I consume it very consistently. So I'm big on consuming mate, which is a strong caffeinated tea. And I generally do that early in the day. Although I do delay about two hours after I wake up for reasons I've talked about in previous episode to maintain that nice arc of alertness and focus.

马黛茶（Yerba Mate）的独特之处在于：与咖啡不同，研究表明它能提升胰高血糖素样肽-1（GLP-1）和瘦素水平。今天虽未深入讨论胰高血糖素，但要知道它在空腹状态下会显著升高——粗略理解可以说是胰岛素的反向调节激素。

Mate also called Yerba Mate is an interesting compound because unlike coffee, it has been shown to increase something called glucagon like peptide GLP-one and increase leptin levels. Now, we didn't talk a lot about glucagon today. Glucagon is really elevated in the fasting state. I mentioned that it's sort of the opposite of insulin in kind of rough terms. That's one way to think about it.

饮用马黛茶提升的GLP-1能有效抑制食欲（我个人并不追求抑制食欲，如前所述我很享受进食），它在刺激大脑、提升警觉度等方面与咖啡功效相当，同时还含有电解质。我们的神经元和大脑运作依赖多种因素（电活动、化学传递等），但离不开足够的钠、钾、镁元素维持功能。

But GLP-one or glucagon like peptide one is increased by ingesting mate and it acts as a pretty nice appetite suppressant. Now I'm not trying to suppress my appetite. I like to eat, as I mentioned before, but it works really well to stimulate the brain and to give you a level of alertness and to do a lot of the things that coffee does. It also contains electrolytes. So, we meaning our neurons and our brain run on a variety of factors, electrical activity and chemical transmission, etcetera, but they require adequate levels of sodium, potassium and magnesium.

如果你学习过动作电位的生物学原理（这是神经科学新生必修内容，有兴趣我很乐意讲解），就会知道神经元通信依赖于钠离子快速涌入细胞和钾离子进出细胞的过程。电解质对神经系统功能至关重要。而像咖啡因这类利尿物质在促进水分排出的同时也会带走电解质（尤其是钠），人们有时出现的头晕或脑雾现象不仅是电解质不足，更可能是电解质失衡所致。因此我选择马黛茶：含电解质和咖啡因，能刺激GLP-1释放，有效帮助我将清晨禁食窗口延长至中午左右才用第一餐。

If you were to learn the biology or the physiology of the action potential, the firing of a neuron, something we teach every first year neuroscience student, and I'd be happy to teach you if you're interested, You'll hear about sodium rushing into cells and potassium entering and leaving cells in order to allow neurons to communicate. Electrolytes are critically important for the function of the nervous system. And many things that act as diuretics that promote excretion of water like caffeine can also take electrolytes out along with in particular sodium. And sometimes the lightheadedness or the brain fog that people experience isn't just because electrolytes are low, but because they're kind of out of balance. So, I like Mate because it has electrolytes, it has caffeine, it stimulates the release of this glucagon like peptide GLP-one, and it's been a big help to me in extending that early morning fasting window out to about noon or so when I eat my first meal.

它的口感也很出色。马黛茶能促进GLP-1释放的特性尤其吸引我，因为GLP-1能以维持血糖稳定（既不过高也不过低）的方式调节血糖水平。综上所述，马黛茶能健康地调控瘦素、葡萄糖和胰高血糖素水平，如果适合你的需求，值得尝试。今天我们深入探讨了激素如何调控进食饥饿感和饱腹感（即不需要再进食的状态），重点涉及胃饥饿素、黑素细胞刺激激素（强效食欲抑制激素）、来自肠道能抑制食欲的胆囊收缩素、食品乳化剂等机制，还揭示了进食时人体对特定氨基酸和脂肪酸的本能寻求（即便你未必意识到）。

It also just tastes really good. And the fact that glucagon like peptide one is enriched or is released more when you drink Mate and the fact that GLP-one can regulate blood sugar in ways that keep your blood sugar in that, we called you glycemic not too high, not too low mode is one reason why ingesting mate is attractive to me. So Yerba Mate GLP-one can manage in healthy ways leptin levels, glucose levels, and glucagon levels in ways that if it serves you, you might want to try. So once again, we covered an enormous amount of material focused on how hormones regulate feeding hunger and when one feels they don't need to eat so called satiety that you've had enough. We've just focused today mainly on things like ghrelin, on things like melanocyte stimulating hormone, incredible, powerful hormone that can suppress appetite, on things like cholecystokinin that comes from the gut and can suppress appetite, on things like food emulsifiers, on the fact that when you're eating, you are amino acid seeking, even though you might not realize it, that you are also seeking out particular fatty acids.

我试图为大家提供多种可操作的实用工具。再次强调：请始终以健康为首要原则，并在医疗专业人士指导下进行实践。我并非医生，不开具任何处方——作为教授，我的职责是传播知识。

So I've tried to give you a number of actionable tools. Again, always do what's best for your health and do that in company with a healthcare professional. I'm not a physician, I don't prescribe anything. I'm a professor. I profess a lot of things.

如果您认识对此话题感兴趣的人，或认为某人能从中受益，也请向他们推荐这个播客。最重要的是，感谢您对科学的关注。

If you know anyone that's interested in this topic or you think that someone could benefit from it, please suggest the podcast to them as well. And most of all, thank you for your interest in science.